Siam (Thailand) is one of the few countries that retained its independence during the colonial period. This is largely due to the efforts of Siamese King Chulalongkorn (Rama V, 1868–1910), who took serious diplomatic steps to neutralize the expansionist designs of France and Britain. In particular, he fostered the formation of a trusting relationship with the Tsarevich Grand Duke Nicholas, who became the Russian Emperor Nicholas II. During their two meetings — in Siam in 1891 and in 1897 in Russia — the two rulers stressed their “spiritual kinship.” Because of this, European countries were forced to negotiate with King Chulalongkorn as a monarch equal in status to European rulers, and the Russian government can be credited with assisting Siam in defending its independence.